Pertemuan 13

Application Layer is a term used in categorizing protocols and methods in architectural models of computer networking. Both the OSI model and the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) contain an application layer.

In TCP/IP, the Application Layer contains all protocols and methods that fall into the realm of process-to-process communications via an Internet Protocol (IP) network using the Transport Layer protocols to establish underlying host-to-host connections.

In the OSI model, the definition of its Application Layer is narrower in scope, distinguishing explicitly additional functionality above the Transport Layer at two additional levels: Session Layer and Presentation Layer. OSI specifies strict modular separation of functionality at these layers and provides protocol implementations for each layer.

The common application layer services provide semantic conversion between associated application processes. Note: Examples of common application services of general interest include the virtual file, virtual terminal, and job transfer and manipulation protocols.

Pertemuan 12

he Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical naming system for computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participants. Most importantly, it translates domain names meaningful to humans into the numerical (binary) identifiers associated with networking equipment for the purpose of locating and addressing these devices worldwide. An often used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the "phone book" for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, www.example.com translates to 208.77.188.166.

The Domain Name System makes it possible to assign domain names to groups of Internet users in a meaningful way, independent of each user's physical location. Because of this, World Wide Web (WWW) hyperlinks and Internet contact information can remain consistent and constant even if the current Internet routing arrangements change or the participant uses a mobile device. Internet domain names are easier to remember than IP addresses such as 208.77.188.166 (IPv4) or 2001:db8:1f70::999:de8:7648:6e8 (IPv6). People take advantage of this when they recite meaningful URLs and e-mail addresses without having to know how the machine will actually locate them.

The Domain Name System distributes the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to IP addresses by designating authoritative name servers for each domain. Authoritative name servers are assigned to be responsible for their particular domains, and in turn can assign other authoritative name servers for their sub-domains. This mechanism has made the DNS distributed, fault tolerant, and helped avoid the need for a single central register to be continually consulted and updated.

In general, the Domain Name System also stores other types of information, such as the list of mail servers that accept email for a given Internet domain. By providing a worldwide, distributed keyword-based redirection service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet.

Other identifiers such as RFID tags, UPC codes, International characters in email addresses and host names, and a variety of other identifiers could all potentially utilize DNS.^[1]

The Domain Name System also defines the technical underpinnings of the functionality of this database service. For this purpose it defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and communication exchanges used in DNS, as part of the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP).

pertemuan 11

Protokol ini menyediakan authentikasi akhir dan privasi komunikasi di Internet menggunakan cryptography. Dalam penggunaan umumnya, hanya server yang diauthentikasi (dalam hal ini, memiliki identitas yang jelas) selama dari sisi client tetap tidak terauthentikasi. Authentikasi dari kedua sisi (mutual authentikasi) memerlukan penyebaran PKI pada client-nya. Protocol ini mengizinkan aplikasi dari client atau server untuk berkomunikasi dengan didesain untuk mencegah eavesdropping, [[tampering]] dan message forgery.

Baik TLS dan SSL melibatkan beberapa langkah dasar:

• Negosiasi dengan ujung client atau server untuk dukungan algoritma.
• Public key, encryption-based-key, dan sertificate-based authentication
• Enkripsi lalulintas symmetric-cipher-based

[sunting] Penerapan

Protocol SSL dan TLS berjalan pada layer dibawah application protocol seperti HTTP, SMTP and NNTP dan di atas layer TCP transport protocol, yang juga merupakan bagian dari TCP/IP protocol. Selama SSL dan TLS dapat menambahkan keamanan ke protocol apa saja yang menggunakan TCP, keduanya terdapat paling sering pada metode akses HTTPS. HTTPS menyediakan keamanan web-pages untuk aplikasi seperti pada Electronic commerce. Protocol SSL dan TLS menggunakan cryptography public-key dan sertifikat publik key untuk memastikan identitas dari pihak yang dimaksud. Sejalan dengan peningkatan jumlah client dan server yang dapat mendukung TLS atau SSL alami, dan beberapa masih belum mendukung. Dalam hal ini, pengguna dari server atau client dapat menggunakan produk standalone-SSL seperti halnya Stunnel untuk menyediakan enkripsi SSL.

Sejarah dan pengembangan: Dikembangkan oleh Netscape, SSL versi 3.0 dirilis pada tahun 1996, yang pada akhirnya menjadi dasar pengembangan Transport Layer Security, sebagai protocol standart IETF. Definisi awal dari TLS muncul pada RFC,2246 : “The TLS Protocol Version 1.0″. Visa, MaterCard, American Express dan banyak lagi institusi finansial terkemuka yang memanfaatkan TLS untuk dukungan commerce melalui internet. Seprti halnya SSL, protocol TLS beroperasi dalam tata-cara modular. TLS didesain untuk berkembang, dengan mendukung kemampuan meningkat dan kembali ke kondisi semula dan negosiasi antar ujung.

Pertemuan 10

Teknik Routing Internet
Onno W. Purbo
Konsep IP address, network address, subnet mask, broadcast address merupakan dasar
dari teknik routing di Internet. Untuk memahami ini semua kemampuan matematika
khususnya matematika boolean, atau matematika binary akan sangat membantu
memahami konsep routing Internet. Contoh pertanyaan yang sering dilontarkan,
· Mengapa kita memilih IP address 192.168.1.5?
· Mengapa subnet mask yang digunakan 255.255.255.224? mengapa bukan angka
lain?
· Mengapa network address 167.205.10.0?
· Mengapa broadcast address-nya 202.159.32.15?
· Dll.
Bagaimana menentukan semua alamat-alamat tersebut? Hal tersebut yang akan dicoba
dijelaskan secara sederhana dalam tulisan ini.
Kalkulator - Alat bantu yang dibutuhkan
Untuk memudahkan kehidupan anda, ada
baiknya menggunakan fasilitas kalkulator yang
ada di Windows. Di Windows 98 dapat di
akses melalui Start Programs
Accessories Calculator.
Calculator
yang standar
memang
sulit
digunakan
untuk
membantu
kalkulasi
biner, oleh
karena itu
pilih View
Scientific
untuk
memperoleh
tampilan
kalkulator
scientifik
yang dapat
digunakan untuk perhitungan biner.
Dengan cara
memindah
mode
operasi ke
bin, maka
nilai yang
ada akan
berubah
menjadi
binary. Pada
gambar
contoh
diperlihatka
n nilai awal
15 desimal,
di pindahkan
menjadi
1111 binary.
Sedikit Aljabar Boolean
Aljabar boolean adalah teknik menghitung dalam bilangan binary 101010111 dsb. Proses
konversi dari desimal ke binary sudah tidak perlu kita pikirkan lagi karena sudah dibantu
menggunakan kalkulator yang ada di Windows 98.
Dari sekian banyak fungsi yang ada di aljabar boolean, seperti and, or, xor, not dll., untuk
keperluan teknik routing di Internet, kita hanya memerlukan fungsi “dan” atau “and”.
Contoh,
1 and 1 = 1
1 and 0 = 0
0 and 1 = 0
0 and 0 = 0
atau yang lebih kompleks
11001010.10011111.00010111.00101101
di AND dengan
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
menjadi
11001010.10011111.00010111.00000000
Tidak percaya? Coba saja masukan angka-angka di atas ke kalkulator Windows, anda
akan memperoleh hasil persis seperti tertera di atas. Pusing? Mari kita konversikan
bilangan binary di atas menjadi bilangan desimal supaya anda tidak terlalu pusing melihat
angka 10101 dsb. Dalam notasi desimal, kalimat di atas menjadi,
202.159.23.45
di AND dengan
255.255.255.0
menjadi
202.159.23.0
Cukup familiar? Coba perhatikan nilai-nilai alamat IP yang biasa kita masukan di Start
Settings Control Panel Network TCP/IP Properties.
Kalau kita perhatikan baik-baik maka panjang sebuah alamat IP adalah 32 bit, yang
dibagi dalam empat (4) segmen yang di beri tanda titik “.” antar segmen-nya. Artinya
setiap segmen terdapat delapan (8) bit.
Alokasi jumlah alamat IP di Jaringan
Teknik subnet merupakan cara yang biasa digunakan untuk mengalokasikan sejumlah
alamat IP di sebuah jaringan (LAN atau WAN). Teknik subnet menjadi penting bila kita
mempunyai alokasi IP yang terbatas misalnya hanya ada 200 IP yang akan di
distribusikan ke beberapa LAN.
Untuk memberikan gambaran, misalkan kita mempunyai alokasi alamat IP dari
192.168.1.0 s/d 192.168.1.255 untuk 254 host, maka parameter yang digunakan untuk
alokasi adalah:
192.168.1.255 – broadcast address LAN
255.255.255.0 - subnet mask LAN
192.168.1.0 – netwok address LAN.
192.168.1.25 – contoh IP address salah workstation di LAN.
Perhatikan bahwa,
· Alamat IP yang pertama 192.168.1.0 tidak digunakan untuk workstation, tapi
untuk menginformasikan bahwa LAN tersebut menggunakan alamat 192.168.1.0.
Istilah keren-nya alamat IP 192.168.1.0 di sebut network address.
· Alamat IP yang terakhir 192.168.1.255 juga tidak digunakan untuk workstation,
tapi digunakan untuk alamat broadcast. Alamat broadcast digunakan untuk
memberikan informasi ke seluruh workstation yang berada di network
192.168.1.0 tersebut. Contoh informasi broadcast adalah informasi routing
menggunakan Routing Information Protocol (RIP).
· Subnet mask LAN 255.255.255.0, dalam bahasa yang sederhana dapat di
terjemahkan bahwa setiap bit “1” menunjukan posisi network address, sedang
setiap bit “0” menunjukan posisi host address.
Konsep network address & host address menjadi penting sekali berkaitan erat dengan
subnet mask. Perhatikan dari contoh di atas maka alamat yang digunakan adalah
192.168.1.0 network address
192.168.1.1 host ke 1
192.168.1.2 host ke 2
192.168.1.3 host ke 3
……
192.168.1.254 host ke 254
192.168.1.255 broacast address
Perhatikan bahwa angka 192.168.1 tidak pernah berubah sama sekali. Hal ini
menyebabkan network address yang digunakan 192.168.1.0. Jika diperhatikan maka
192.168.1 terdiri dari 24 bit yang konstan tidak berubah, hanya delapan (8) bit terakhir
yang berubah memberikan identifikasi mesin yang mana. Tidak heran kalau netmask
yang digunakan adalah
(binary) 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
(desimal) 255.255.255.0.
Walaupun alamat IP workstation tetap, tapi netmask yang digunakan di masing-masing
router akan berubah-ubah tergantung posisi router dalam jaringan. Bingung? Mari kita
lihat analogi di jaringan telepon yang biasa kita gunakan sehari-hari, misalnya kita
mempunyai nomor telepon yang dapat di telepon dari luar negeri dengan nomor,
+62 21 420 1234
Lokasi nomor telepon tersebut di Jakarta, dengan sentral sekitar senen & cempaka putih.
Kita perhatikan perilaku sentral telepon di tiga lokasi
1. Sentral di Amerika Serikat
2. Sentral di Indosat Jakarta
3. Sentral telepon di Telkom Jakarta Gatot Subroto
4. Sentral telepon di Senen, Cempaka Putih.
Pada saat kawan kita di amerika serikat akan menghubungi rekannya di Jakarta dengan
nomor +62 21 420 1234.
Pada sentral di Amerika Serikat, hanya memperhatikan dua digit pertama (+62), setelah
membaca angka +62 tanpa memperdulikan angka selanjutnya maka sentral di Amerika
Serikat akan menghubungi gerbang SLI di Indosat Jakarta untuk memperoleh
sambungan. Perhatikan di sini netmask di sentral amerika serikat untuk jaringan di
Indonesia hanya cukup dua digit pertama, selebihnya di anggap host (handset) di jaringan
telepon Indonesia yang tidak perlu di perdulikan oleh sentral di Amerika Serikat.
Pada sentral Indosat Jakarta, berbeda dengan sentral di Amerika Serikat, akan
memperhatikan dua digit selanjutnya (jadi total +62 21). Dari informasi tersebut sentral
indosat mengetahui bahwa trafik tersebut untuk Jakarta dan akan meneruskan trafik ke
sentral Telkom di Jl. Gatot Subroto di Jakarta. Perhatikan sekarang netmask menjadi
empat (4) digit.
Pada sentral Telkom di Gatot Subroto Jakarta akan melihat tiga (3) digit selanjutnya
(+62 21 420). Dari informasi tersebut maka sentral Telkom Gatot Subroto akan
meneruskan trafik ke sentral yang lebih rendah kemungkinan di Gambir atau sekitar
Senen. Perhatikan sekarang netmask menjadi tujuh (7) digit.
Pada sentral terakhir di Gambir atau Senen, akan dilihat pelanggan mana yang di tuju
yang terdapat dalam empat digit terakhir (1234). Maka sampailah trafik ke tujuan. Nomor
pelanggan kira-kira ekuivalen dengan host address di jaringan Internet.
Mudah-mudahan menjadi lebih jelas fungsi netmask. Secara sederhana netmask
digunakan untuk memisahkan antara network address & host address untuk memudahkan
proses routing di jaringan Internet. Dengan adanya netmask kita tidak perlu
memperhatikan seluruh alamat IP yang ada, tapi cukup memperhatikan segelintir network
address saja.
Beberapa contoh network address di Internet di Indonesia, dapat dengan mudah
mengidentifikasi ISP atau pemilik jaringan tersebut, misalnya,
202.134.0.0 telkom.net
202.154.0.0 rad.net.id
202.159.0.0 indo.net.id
202.158.0.0 cbn.net.id
167.205.0.0 itb.ac.id
terlihat jelas bahwa terdapat sebuah struktur penomoran, terlihat sekali bahwa IP address
dengan awalan 202 umumnya ISP dari Indonesia yang di alokasikan oleh penguasa IP di
Internet seperti www.icann.org. Dengan teknik ini sebetulnya dari Internet untuk
mengarah ke Indonesia cukup melakukan masking dengan mask
255.0.0.0
karena delapan (8) bit pertama yang perlu di mask. Biasanya pada router dapat juga di
tulis dengan kalimat
202.159.0.0/8
ada slash /8 di belakang IP address menandakan bahwa cukup delapan (8) bit pertama
yang perlu diperhatikan.
Selanjutnya untuk mengarahkan paket data ke jaringan internal di IndoNet (indo.net.id),
maka masking pada router di IndoNet atau berbagai ISP di Jakarta adalah
255.255.0.0
atau pada router tersebut dapat digunakan routing ke arah
202.159.0.0/16
perhatikan sekarang slash yang digunakan adalah slah 16 (/16), artinya cukup
diperhatikan 16 bit saja dari total 32 bit IP address yang ada.
Selanjutnya mengarahkan paket ke PT. Antah Berantah yang memiliki sambungan leased
line di IndoNet, pada router di IndoNet dapat digunakan masking yang tidak terlalu
normal misalnya
255.255.255.240
atau dapat digunakan pengalamatan
202.159.12.0/24
artinya router harus memperhatikan 24 bit pertama dari IP address.
Sintaks Penambahan Route
Setelah kita mengetahui pola fikir routing pada Internet, maka langkah selanjutnya yang
perlu kita tahu adalah cara menambahkan route pada tabel route di komputer. Hal ini
tidak terlalu sukar, perintah yang dapat digunakan adalah
C:> route (di Windows)
# route (di Linux)
di Windows format penambahan route tersebut sangat sederhana yaitu
C:> route add 202.159.0.0 netmask 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.1 metric 3
Di Linux format-nya dapat menjadi
# route add –net 202.159.0.0/16 gw 192.168.0.1 metric 3
Dimana 202.159.0.0 adalah network address (dapat juga kalau dibutuhkan kita
memberikan routing ke sebuah host); 255.255.0.0 atau /16 adalah netmask yang
digunakan; 192.168.0.1 adalah gateway yang digunakan; metric 3 menandakan prioritas
routing, yang dapat dikosongkan saja.
Untuk melihat tabel routing di komputer kita dapat dilakukan dengan perintah
C:> netstat –nr (di Windows)
C:> route print (di Windows)
# netstat –nr (di Linux)
# route (di Linux)
Tentunya akan pusing kepala jika kita beroperasi pada jaringan yang kompleks.
Sebaiknya kita menggunakan teknik routing yang automatis. Hal ini dapat dilakukan
dengan mudah di Linux dengan menjalankan software seperti
# routed
atau
# gated
software routing seperti ini mungkin ada di Windows NT atau Windows 2000, tapi tidak
pada Windows 98.

pertemuan 9

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) adalah protokol yang berbasis arsitektur client/server yang dipakai untuk memudahkan pengalokasian alamat IP dalam satu jaringan. Sebuah jaringan lokal yang tidak menggunakan DHCP harus memberikan alamat IP kepada semua komputer secara manual. Jika DHCP dipasang di jaringan lokal, maka semua komputer yang tersambung di jaringan akan mendapatkan alamat IP secara otomatis dari server DHCP. Selain alamat IP, banyak parameter jaringan yang dapat diberikan oleh DHCP, seperti default gateway dan DNS server.

DHCP didefinisikan dalam RFC 2131 dan RFC 2132 yang dipublikasikan oleh Internet Engineering Task Force. DHCP merupakan ekstensi dari protokol Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP).

Daftar isi [sembunyikan] 1 Cara Kerja 1.1 DHCP Scope 1.2 DHCP Lease 1.3 DHCP Options

[sunting] Cara Kerja

Karena DHCP merupakan sebuah protokol yang menggunakan arsitektur client/server, maka dalam DHCP terdapat dua pihak yang terlibat, yakni DHCP Server dan DHCP Client.

• DHCP server merupakan sebuah mesin yang menjalankan layanan yang dapat "menyewakan" alamat IP dan informasi TCP/IP lainnya kepada semua klien yang memintanya. Beberapa sistem operasi jaringan seperti Windows NT Server, Windows 2000 Server, Windows Server 2003, atau GNU/Linux memiliki layanan seperti ini.
• DHCP client merupakan mesin klien yang menjalankan perangkat lunak klien DHCP yang memungkinkan mereka untuk dapat berkomunikasi dengan DHCP Server. Sebagian besar sistem operasi klien jaringan (Windows NT Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, Windows Vista, atau GNU/Linux) memiliki perangkat lunak seperti ini.

DHCP server umumnya memiliki sekumpulan alamat yang diizinkan untuk didistribusikan kepada klien, yang disebut sebagai DHCP Pool. Setiap klien kemudian akan menyewa alamat IP dari DHCP Pool ini untuk waktu yang ditentukan oleh DHCP, biasanya hingga beberapa hari. Manakala waktu penyewaan alamat IP tersebut habis masanya, klien akan meminta kepada server untuk memberikan alamat IP yang baru atau memperpanjangnya.

DHCP Client akan mencoba untuk mendapatkan "penyewaan" alamat IP dari sebuah DHCP server dalam proses empat langkah berikut:

1. DHCPDISCOVER: DHCP client akan menyebarkan request secara broadcast untuk mencari DHCP Server yang aktif.
2. DHCPOFFER: Setelah DHCP Server mendengar broadcast dari DHCP Client, DHCP server kemudian menawarkan sebuah alamat kepada DHCP client.
3. DHCPREQUEST: Client meminta DCHP server untuk menyewakan alamat IP dari salah satu alamat yang tersedia dalam DHCP Pool pada DHCP Server yang bersangkutan.
4. DHCPACK: DHCP server akan merespons permintaan dari klien dengan mengirimkan paket acknowledgment. Kemudian, DHCP Server akan menetapkan sebuah alamat (dan konfigurasi TCP/IP lainnya) kepada klien, dan memperbarui basis data database miliknya. Klien selanjutnya akan memulai proses binding dengan tumpukan protokol TCP/IP dan karena telah memiliki alamat IP, klien pun dapat memulai komunikasi jaringan.

Empat tahap di atas hanya berlaku bagi klien yang belum memiliki alamat. Untuk klien yang sebelumnya pernah meminta alamat kepada DHCP server yang sama, hanya tahap 3 dan tahap 4 yang dilakukan, yakni tahap pembaruan alamat (address renewal), yang jelas lebih cepat prosesnya.

Berbeda dengan sistem DNS yang terdistribusi, DHCP bersifat stand-alone, sehingga jika dalam sebuah jaringan terdapat beberapa DHCP server, basis data alamat IP dalam sebuah DHCP Server tidak akan direplikasi ke DHCP server lainnya. Hal ini dapat menjadi masalah jika konfigurasi antara dua DHCP server tersebut berbenturan, karena protokol IP tidak mengizinkan dua host memiliki alamat yang sama.

Selain dapat menyediakan alamat dinamis kepada klien, DHCP Server juga dapat menetapkan sebuah alamat statik kepada klien, sehingga alamat klien akan tetap dari waktu ke waktu.

Catatan: DHCP server harus memiliki alamat IP yang statis.

[sunting] DHCP Scope

DHCP Scope adalah alamat-alamat IP yang dapat disewakan kepada DHCP client. Ini juga dapat dikonfigurasikan oleh seorang administrator dengan menggunakan peralatan konfigurasi DHCP server. Biasanya, sebuah alamat IP disewakan dalam jangka waktu tertentu, yang disebut sebagai DHCP Lease, yang umumnya bernilai tiga hari. Informasi mengenai DHCP Scope dan alamat IP yang telah disewakan kemudian disimpan di dalam basis data DHCP dalam DHCP server. Nilai alamat-alamat IP yang dapat disewakan harus diambil dari DHCP Pool yang tersedia yang dialokasikan dalam jaringan. Kesalahan yang sering terjadi dalam konfigurasi DHCP Server adalah kesalahan dalam konfigurasi DHCP Scope.

[sunting] DHCP Lease

DHCP Lease adalah batas waktu penyewaan alamat IP yang diberikan kepada DHCP client oleh DHCP Server. Umumnya, hal ini dapat dikonfigurasikan sedemikian rupa oleh seorang administrator dengan menggunakan beberapa peralatan konfigurasi (dalam Windows NT Server dapat menggunakan DHCP Manager atau dalam Windows 2000 ke atas dapat menggunakan Microsoft Management Console [MMC]). DHCP Lease juga sering disebut sebagai Reservation.

[sunting] DHCP Options

DHCP Options adalah tambahan pengaturan alamat IP yang diberikan oleh DHCP ke DHCP client. Ketika sebuah klien meminta alamat IP kepada server, server akan memberikan paling tidak sebuah alamat IP dan alamat subnet jaringan. DHCP server juga dapat dikonfigurasikan sedemikian rupa agar memberikan tambahan informasi kepada klien, yang tentunya dapat dilakukan oleh seorang administrator. DHCP Options ini dapat diaplikasikan kepada semua klien, DHCP Scope tertentu, atau kepada sebuah host tertentu dalam jaringan.

Dalam jaringan berbasis Windows NT, terdapat beberapa DHCP Option yang sering digunakan, yang dapat disusun dalam tabel berikut.

Nomor DHCP Option	Nama DHCP Option	Apa yang dikonfigurasikannya
003	Router	Mengonfigurasikan default gateway dalam konfigurasi alamat IP. Default gateway merujuk kepada alamat router.
006	DNS Servers	Mengonfigurasikan alamat IP untuk DNS server
015	DNS Domain Name	Mengonfigurasikan alamat IP untuk DNS server yang menjadi "induk" dari DNS Server yang bersangkutan.
044	NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server	Mengonfigurasikan alamat IP dari WINS Server
046	NetBIOS over TCP/IP Node Type	Mengonfigurasikan cara yang digunakan oleh klien untuk melakukan resolusi nama NetBIOS.
047	NetBIOS over TCP/IP Scope	Membatasi klien-klien NetBIOS agar hanya dapat berkomunikasi dengan klien lainnya yang memiliki alamat DHCP Scope yang sama.

pertemuan 8

The Network Layer is Layer 3 of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking.

The Network Layer is responsible for end-to-end (source to destination) packet delivery including routing through intermediate hosts, whereas the Data Link Layer is responsible for node-to-node (hop-to-hop) frame delivery on the same link.

The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination host via one or more networks while maintaining the quality of service and error control functions.

Functions of the Network Layer include:

• Connection model: connection-oriented and connectionless communication

For example, snail mail is connectionless, in that a letter can travel from a sender to a recipient without the recipient having to do anything. On the other hand, the telephone system is connection-oriented, because the other party is required to pick up the phone before communication can be established. The OSI Network Layer protocol can be either connection-oriented, or connectionless. In contrast, the TCP/IP Internet Layer supports only the connectionless Internet Protocol (IP); but connection-oriented protocols exist higher at other layers of that model.

• Host addressing

Every host in the network needs to have a unique address which determines where it is. This address will normally be assigned from a hierarchical system, so you can be "Fred Murphy" to people in your house, "Fred Murphy, Main Street 1" to Dubliners, or "Fred Murphy, Main Street 1, Dublin" to people in Ireland, or "Fred Murphy, Main Street 1, Dublin, Ireland" to people anywhere in the world. On the Internet, addresses are known as Internet Protocol (IP) addresses.

• Message forwarding

Since many networks are partitioned into subnetworks and connect to other networks for wide-area communications, networks use specialized hosts, called gateways or routers to forward packets between networks. This is also of interest to mobile applications, where a user may move from one location to another, and it must be arranged that his messages follow him. Version 4 of the Internet Protocol (IPv4) was not designed with this feature in mind, although mobility extensions exist. IPv6 has a better designed solution.

Within the service layering semantics of the OSI network architecture the Network Layer responds to service requests from the Transport Layer and issues service requests to the Data Link Layer.

pertemuan 7

Internetworking involves connecting two or more computer networks via gateways using a common routing technology. The result is called an internetwork. The term has historically been contracted to internet.

The most notable example of internetworking is the Internet, a network of networks based on many underlying hardware technologies, but unified by an internetworking protocol standard, the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP).

The network elements used to connect individual networks are known as routers, but were originally called gateways, a term that was deprecated in this context, due to confusion with functionally different devices using the same name.

The interconnection of networks with bridges (Link Layer devices) is sometimes incorrectly termed "internetworking", but the resulting system is simply a larger, single subnetwork, and no internetworking protocol (such as IP) is required to traverse it. However, a single computer network may be converted into an internetwork by dividing the network into segments and then adding routers between the segments.

The original term for an internetwork was catenet. Internetworking started as a way to connect disparate types of networking technology, but it became widespread through the developing need to connect two or more local area networks via some sort of wide area network. The definition now includes the connection of other types of computer networks such as personal area networks.

The Internet Protocol is designed to provide an unreliable (i.e., not guaranteed) packet service across the network. The architecture avoids intermediate network elements maintaining any state of the network. Instead, this function is assigned to the endpoints of each communication session. To transfer data reliably, applications must utilize an appropriate Transport Layer protocol, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which provides a reliable stream. Some applications use a simpler, connection-less transport protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), for tasks which do not require reliable delivery of data or that require real-time service, such as video streaming.^[1]

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This article is about IP addresses in general. For the Wikipedia user access level, see Wikipedia:User access levels#Anonymous users.

An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes.^[1] An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."^[2]

The designers of TCP/IP defined an IP address as a 32-bit number^[1] and this system, known as Internet Protocol Version 4 or IPv4, is still in use today. However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet and the resulting depletion of available addresses, a new addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, was developed in 1995^[3] and last standardized by RFC 2460 in 1998.^[4] Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are usually displayed in human-readable notations, such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6).

The Internet Protocol also routes data packets between networks; IP addresses specify the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology of the routing system. For this purpose, some of the bits in an IP address are used to designate a subnetwork. The number of these bits is indicated in CIDR notation, appended to the IP address; e.g., 208.77.188.166/24.

As the development of private networks raised the threat of IPv4 address exhaustion, RFC 1918 set aside a group of private address spaces that may be used by anyone on private networks. They are often used with network address translators to connect to the global public Internet.

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), which manages the IP address space allocations globally, cooperates with five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to Local Internet Registries (Internet service providers) and other entities.

[edit] IP versions

Two versions of the Internet Protocol (IP) are in use: IP Version 4 and IP Version 6. (See IP version history for details.) Each version defines an IP address differently. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4.

An illustration of an IP address (version 4), in both dot-decimal notation and binary.

[edit] IP version 4 addresses

Main article: IPv4#Addressing

IPv4 uses 32-bit (4-byte) addresses, which limits the address space to 4,294,967,296 (2³²) possible unique addresses. IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated to end users and, as the number of addresses available is consumed, IPv4 address exhaustion is inevitable. This foreseeable shortage was the primary motivation for developing IPv6, which is in various deployment stages around the world and is the only strategy for IPv4 replacement and continued Internet expansion.

IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation (four numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g. 208.77.188.166). Each part represents 8 bits of the address, and is therefore called an octet. In less common cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations. In most representations each octet is converted individually.

[edit] IPv4 subnetting

In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol,^[1] network administrators interpreted an IP address in two parts, network number portion and host number portion. The highest order octet (most significant eight bits) in an address was designated the network number and the rest of the bits were called the rest field or host identifier and were used for host numbering within a network. This method soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent from the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture.^[2]

Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address was defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for universal unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes (B and C). The following table gives an overview of this now obsolete system.

Historical classful network architecture
Class	First octet in binary	Range of first octet	Network ID	Host ID	Number of networks	Number of addresses
A	0XXXXXXX	0 - 127	a	b.c.d	27-2 = 126	224-2 = 16,777,214
B	10XXXXXX	128 - 191	a.b	c.d	214 = 16,384	216-2 = 65,534
C	110XXXXX	192 - 223	a.b.c	d	221-1 = 2,097,151	28-2 = 254

The articles 'subnetwork' and 'classful network' explain the details of this design.

Although classful network design was a successful developmental stage, it proved unscalable in the rapid expansion of the Internet and was abandoned when Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) was created for the allocation of IP address blocks and new rules of routing protocol packets using IPv4 addresses. CIDR is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing on arbitrary-length prefixes.

Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions.

[edit] IPv4 private addresses

Main article: Private network

Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved (IPv4 address exhaustion).

Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally-unique IP addresses. Three ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks, one range for each class (A, B, C), were reserved in RFC 1918. These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry.

Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network address translation (NAT).

IANA-reserved private IPv4 network ranges
	Start	End	No. of addresses
24-bit Block (/8 prefix, 1 x A)	10.0.0.0	10.255.255.255	16,777,216
20-bit Block (/12 prefix, 16 x B)	172.16.0.0	172.31.255.255	1,048,576
16-bit Block (/16 prefix, 256 x C)	192.168.0.0	192.168.255.255	65,536

Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).

[edit] IPv4 address depletion

Main article: IPv4 address exhaustion

The IP version 4 address space is rapidly nearing exhaustion of available, officially assignable address blocks.

[edit] IP version 6 addresses

Main article: IPv6 address

An illustration of an IP address (version 6), in hexadecimal and binary.

The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space, despite conservation techniques, prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the Internet's addressing capability. The permanent solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet Protocol itself. This next generation of the Internet Protocol, aimed to replace IPv4 on the Internet, was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995^[3][4] The address size was increased from 32 to 128 bits or 16 octets, which, even with a generous assignment of network blocks, is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. Mathematically, the new address space provides the potential for a maximum of 2¹²⁸, or about 3.403 × 10³⁸ unique addresses.

The new design is not based on the goal to provide a sufficient quantity of addresses alone, but rather to allow efficient aggregation of subnet routing prefixes to occur at routing nodes. As a result, routing table sizes are smaller, and the smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet for 2⁶⁴ hosts, which is the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address utilization rates will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment—that is the local administration of the segment's available space—from the addressing prefix used to route external traffic for a network. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks should the global connectivity or the routing policy change without requiring internal redesign or renumbering.

The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is not the need to have complex address conservation methods as used in classless inter-domain routing (CIDR).

All modern^[update] desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6 protocol, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as home networking routers, voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals.

Example of an IPv6 address:

2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7334

[edit] IPv6 private addresses

Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private or internal networks, there are blocks of addresses set aside in IPv6 for private addresses. In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULA). RFC 4193 sets aside the routing prefix fc00::/7 for this block which is divided into two /8 blocks with different implied policies (cf. IPv6) The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted.

Early designs (RFC 3513) used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed site-local addresses. However, the definition of what constituted sites remained unclear and the poorly defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. The address range specification was abandoned and must no longer be used in new systems.

Addresses starting with fe80: — called link-local addresses — are assigned only in the local link area. The addresses are generated usually automatically by the operating system's IP layer for each network interface. This provides instant automatic network connectivity for any IPv6 host and means that if several hosts connect to a common hub or switch, they have an instant communication path via their link-local IPv6 address. This feature is used extensively, and invisibly to most users, in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration (cf. Neighbor Discovery Protocol).

None of the private address prefixes may be routed in the public Internet.

[edit] IP subnetworks

Main article: Subnetwork

The technique of subnetting can operate in both IPv4 and IPv6 networks. The IP address is divided into two parts: the network address and the host identifier. The subnet mask (in IPv4 only) or the CIDR prefix determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts.

The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.

[edit] Static and dynamic IP addresses

When a computer is configured to use the same IP address each time it powers up, this is known as a Static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is assigned automatically, it is known as a Dynamic IP address.

[edit] Method of assignment

Static IP addresses are manually assigned to a computer by an administrator. The exact procedure varies according to platform. This contrasts with dynamic IP addresses, which are assigned either by the computer interface or host software itself, as in Zeroconf, or assigned by a server using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Even though IP addresses assigned using DHCP may stay the same for long periods of time, they can generally change. In some cases, a network administrator may implement dynamically assigned static IP addresses. In this case, a DHCP server is used, but it is specifically configured to always assign the same IP address to a particular computer. This allows static IP addresses to be configured centrally, without having to specifically configure each computer on the network in a manual procedure.

In the absence or failure of static or stateful (DHCP) address configurations, an operating system may assign an IP address to a network interface using state-less autoconfiguration methods, such as Zeroconf.

[edit] Uses of dynamic addressing

Dynamic IP addresses are most frequently assigned on LANs and broadband networks by Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. They are used because it avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows many devices to share limited address space on a network if only some of them will be online at a particular time. In most current desktop operating systems, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default so that a user does not need to manually enter any settings to connect to a network with a DHCP server. DHCP is not the only technology used to assigning dynamic IP addresses. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol.

[edit] Sticky dynamic IP address

A sticky dynamic IP address or sticky IP is an informal term used by cable and DSL Internet access subscribers to describe a dynamically assigned IP address that does not change often. The addresses are usually assigned with the DHCP protocol. Since the modems are usually powered-on for extended periods of time, the address leases are usually set to long periods and simply renewed upon expiration. If a modem is turned off and powered up again before the next expiration of the address lease, it will most likely receive the same IP address.

[edit] Address autoconfiguration

RFC 3330 defines an address block, 169.254.0.0/16, for the special use in link-local addressing for IPv4 networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the fe80::/10 subnet.

These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private addresses cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet.

When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation that called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). Due to Microsoft's market power, APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry. Many years later, the IETF defined a formal standard for this functionality, RFC 3927, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses.

[edit] Uses of static addressing

Some infrastructure situations have to use static addressing, such as when finding the Domain Name System host that will translate domain names to IP addresses. Static addresses are also convenient, but not absolutely necessary, to locate servers inside an enterprise. An address obtained from a DNS server comes with a time to live, or caching time, after which it should be looked up to confirm that it has not changed. Even static IP addresses do change as a result of network administration (RFC 2072)

[edit] Modifications to IP addressing

[edit] IP blocking and firewalls

Main articles: IP blocking and Firewall

Firewalls are common on today^[update]'s Internet. For increased network security, they control access to private networks based on the public IP of the client. Whether using a blacklist or a whitelist, the IP address that is blocked is the perceived public IP address of the client, meaning that if the client is using a proxy server or NAT, blocking one IP address might block many individual people.

[edit] IP address translation

Main article: Network Address Translation

Multiple client devices can appear to share IP addresses: either because they are part of a shared hosting web server environment or because an IPv4 network address translator (NAT) or proxy server acts as an intermediary agent on behalf of its customers, in which case the real originating IP addresses might be hidden from the server receiving a request. A common practice is to have a NAT hide a large number of IP addresses in a private network. Only the "outside" interface(s) of the NAT need to have Internet-routable addresses^[5].

Most commonly, the NAT device maps TCP or UDP port numbers on the outside to individual private addresses on the inside. Just as a telephone number may have site-specific extensions, the port numbers are site-specific extensions to an IP address.

In small home networks, NAT functions usually take place in a residential gateway device, typically one marketed as a "router". In this scenario, the computers connected to the router would have 'private' IP addresses and the router would have a 'public' address to communicate with the Internet. This type of router allows several computers to share one public IP address.

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A wireless local area network (WLAN) links devices via a wireless distribution method (typically spread-spectrum or OFDM radio), and usually provides a connection through an access point to the wider internet. This gives users the mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network.

Wireless LANs have become popular in the home due to ease of installation, and the increasing popularity of laptop computers. Public businesses such as coffee shops and malls have begun to offer wireless access to their customers; sometimes for free. Large wireless network projects are being put up in many major cities: New York City, for instance, has begun a pilot program to cover all five boroughs of the city with wireless Internet access.^{[citation needed]}

An embedded RouterBoard 112 with U.FL-RSMA pigtail and R52 mini PCI Wi-Fi card widely used by wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) in the Czech Republic.

In 1970 Norman Abramson, a professor at the University of Hawaii, developed the world’s first computer communication network, ALOHAnet, using low-cost ham-like radios. With a bi-directional star topology, the system connected seven computers deployed over four islands to communicate with the central computer on the Oahu Island without using phone lines.^[1]

"In 1979, F.R. Gfeller and U. Bapst published a paper in the IEEE Proceedings reporting an experimental wireless local area network using diffused infrared communications. Shortly thereafter, in 1980, P. Ferrert reported on an experimental application of a single code spread spectrum radio for wireless terminal communications in the IEEE National Telecommunications Conference. In 1984, a comparison between infrared and CDMA spread spectrum communications for wireless office information networks was published by Kaveh Pahlavan in IEEE Computer Networking Symposium which appeared later in the IEEE Communication Society Magazine. In May 1985, the efforts of Marcus led the FCC to announce experimental ISM bands for commercial application of spread spectrum technology. Later on, M. Kavehrad reported on an experimental wireless PBX system using code division multiple access. These efforts prompted significant industrial activities in the development of a new generation of wireless local area networks and it updated several old discussions in the portable and mobile radio industry.

The first generation of wireless data modems was developed in the early 1980s by amateur radio operators, who commonly referred to this as packet radio. They added a voice band data communication modem, with data rates below 9600-bit/s, to an existing short distance radio system, typically in the two meter amateur band. The second generation of wireless modems was developed immediately after the FCC announcement in the experimental bands for non-military use of the spread spectrum technology. These modems provided data rates on the order of hundreds of kbit/s. The third generation of wireless modem then aimed at compatibility with the existing LANs with data rates on the order of Mbit/s. Several companies developed the third generation products with data rates above 1 Mbit/s and a couple of products had already been announced by the time of the first IEEE Workshop on Wireless LANs."^[2]

54 Mbit/s WLAN PCI Card (802.11g)

"The first of the IEEE Workshops on Wireless LAN was held in 1991. At that time early wireless LAN products had just appeared in the market and the IEEE 802.11 committee had just started its activities to develop a standard for wireless LANs. The focus of that first workshop was evaluation of the alternative technologies. By 1996, the technology was relatively mature, a variety of applications had been identified and addressed and technologies that enable these applications were well understood. Chip sets aimed at wireless LAN implementations and applications, a key enabling technology for rapid market growth, were emerging in the market. Wireless LANs were being used in hospitals, stock exchanges, and other in building and campus settings for nomadic access, point-to-point LAN bridges, ad-hoc networking, and even larger applications through internetworking. The IEEE 802.11 standard and variants and alternatives, such as the wireless LAN interoperability forum and the European HiperLAN specification had made rapid progress, and the unlicensed PCS Unlicensed Personal Communications Services and the proposed SUPERNet, later on renamed as U-NII, bands also presented new opportunities."^[3]

WLAN hardware was initially so expensive that it was only used as an alternative to cabled LAN in places where cabling was difficult or impossible. Early development included industry-specific solutions and proprietary protocols, but at the end of the 1990s these were replaced by standards, primarily the various versions of IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi). An alternative ATM-like 5 GHz standardized technology, HiperLAN/2, has so far not succeeded in the market, and with the release of the faster 54 Mbit/s 802.11a (5 GHz) and 802.11g (2.4 GHz) standards, almost certainly never will.

[edit] Architecture

Wireless Networking in the Developing World (PDF book)

[edit] Stations

All components that can connect into a wireless medium in a network are referred to as stations.

All stations are equipped with wireless network interface cards (WNICs).

Wireless stations fall into one of two categories: access points, and clients.

Access points (APs), normally routers, are base stations for the wireless network. They transmit and receive radio frequencies for wireless enabled devices to communicate with.

Wireless clients can be mobile devices such as laptops, personal digital assistants, IP phones, or fixed devices such as desktops and workstations that are equipped with a wireless network interface.

[edit] Basic service set

The basic service set (BSS) is a set of all stations that can communicate with each other.

There are two types of BSS: Independent BSS (also referred to as IBSS), and infrastructure BSS.

Every BSS has an identification (ID) called the BSSID, which is the MAC address of the access point servicing the BSS.

An independent BSS (IBSS) is an ad-hoc network that contains no access points, which means they can not connect to any other basic service set.

An infrastructure can communicate with other stations not in the same basic service set by communicating through access points.

[edit] Extended service set

An extended service set (ESS) is a set of one or more interconnected BSSes. Access points in an ESS are connected by a distribution system. Each ESS has an ID called the SSID which is a 32-byte (maximum) character string.

[edit] Distribution system

A distribution system (DS) connects access points in an extended service set. The concept of a DS can be used to increase network coverage through roaming between cells.

[edit] Types of wireless LANs

[edit] Peer-to-peer

Peer-to-Peer or ad-hoc wireless LAN

An ad-hoc network is a network where stations communicate only peer to peer (P2P). There is no base and no one gives permission to talk. This is accomplished using the Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS).

A peer-to-peer (P2P) network allows wireless devices to directly communicate with each other. Wireless devices within range of each other can discover and communicate directly without involving central access points. This method is typically used by two computers so that they can connect to each other to form a network.

If a signal strength meter is used in this situation, it may not read the strength accurately and can be misleading, because it registers the strength of the strongest signal, which may be the closest computer.

Hidden node problem: Devices A and C are both communicating with B, but are unaware of each other

IEEE 802.11 define the physical layer (PHY) and MAC (Media Access Control) layers based on CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance). The 802.11 specification includes provisions designed to minimize collisions, because two mobile units may both be in range of a common access point, but out of range of each other.

The 802.11 has two basic modes of operation: Ad hoc mode enables peer-to-peer transmission between mobile units. Infrastructure mode in which mobile units communicate through an access point that serves as a bridge to a wired network infrastructure is the more common wireless LAN application the one being covered. Since wireless communication uses a more open medium for communication in comparison to wired LANs, the 802.11 designers also included shared-key encryption mechanisms: Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA, WPA2), to secure wireless computer networks.

[edit] Bridge

A bridge can be used to connect networks, typically of different types. A wireless Ethernet bridge allows the connection of devices on a wired Ethernet network to a wireless network. The bridge acts as the connection point to the Wireless LAN.

[edit] Wireless distribution system

A Wireless Distribution System is a system that enables the wireless interconnection of access points in an IEEE 802.11 network. It allows a wireless network to be expanded using multiple access points without the need for a wired backbone to link them, as is traditionally required. The notable advantage of WDS over other solutions is that it preserves the MAC addresses of client packets across links between access points.^[4]

An access point can be either a main, relay or remote base station. A main base station is typically connected to the wired Ethernet. A relay base station relays data between remote base stations, wireless clients or other relay stations to either a main or another relay base station. A remote base station accepts connections from wireless clients and passes them to relay or main stations. Connections between "clients" are made using MAC addresses rather than by specifying IP assignments.

All base stations in a Wireless Distribution System must be configured to use the same radio channel, and share WEP keys or WPA keys if they are used. They can be configured to different service set identifiers. WDS also requires that every base station be configured to forward to others in the system.

WDS may also be referred to as repeater mode because it appears to bridge and accept wireless clients at the same time (unlike traditional bridging). It should be noted, however, that throughput in this method is halved for all clients connected wirelessly.

When it is difficult to connect all of the access points in a network by wires, it is also possible to put up access points as repeaters.

[edit] Roaming

Roaming between Wireless Local Area Networks

There are 2 definitions for wireless LAN roaming:

• Internal Roaming (1): The Mobile Station (MS) moves from one access point (AP) to another AP within a home network because the signal strength is too weak. An authentication server (RADIUS) assumes the re-authentication of MS via 802.1x (e.g. with PEAP). The billing of QoS is in the home network. A Mobile Station roaming from one access point to another often interrupts the flow of data between the Mobile Station and an application connected to the network. The Mobile Station, for instance, periodically monitors the presence of alternative access points (ones that will provide a better connection). At some point, based upon proprietary mechanisms, the Mobile Station decides to re-associate with an access point having a stronger wireless signal. The Mobile Station, however, may lose a connection with an access point before associating with another access point. In order to provide reliable connections with applications, the Mobile Station must generally include software that provides session persistence.^[5]

• External Roaming (2): The MS(client) moves into a WLAN of another Wireless Internet Service Provider (WISP) and takes their services (Hotspot). The user can independently of his home network use another foreign network, if this is open for visitors. There must be special authentication and billing systems for mobile services in a foreign network.^[6]